PSYCHOLOGY LINGUISTICS
“LANGUAGE AND THE BRAIN”
NENDEN
ANGGI NURIDA
PBI-VI/STKIP
SYEKH MANSHUR
PANDEGLANG
2015
PREFACE
First at all, give thanks for God’s love and grace for us.
Thanks to God for helping me and give me chance to finish this assigment
timely. And I would like to say thank you to Mr. Raswadi,M.Pd as the lecturer that always teach us
and give much knowledge about Psychology Linguistics.
I realized this assigment is not perfect. But I hope it can be
useful for us. Critics and suggestion is needed here to make this assigment be
better. Thank you.
Nenden Anggi Nurida
TABLE OF CONTENT
Table
of Content.................................................................................................................... i
Preface.......................................................................................................................
ii
CHAPTER
I INTRODUCTION
Introduction........................................................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER
II DISCUSSION
Processing
language............................................................................................................... 2
Language
and Brain............................................................................................................... 2
Neurological
Substratum of Language......................................................................
The
structure of Brain............................................................................................................
CHAPTER
III CONCLUSION
Conclusion............................................................................................................................. 11
REFERENCES
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Language
is one of the pillars of the human intellect. It is the principal means whereby
individuals formulate thoughts and convey them to others. It plays a role in
analyzing the world, in reasoning, solving problems, and planning actions. It
allows us to convey memories of the past and beliefs about the future, to
engage others about events that have not taken place, and to express the
relations between events.
Language
is an indispensable part of human culture, without which jurisprudence,
commerce, science and other human endeavors could not exist in the forms we
know them. It is an object of beauty in its own right. A combination of
semantic and artistic force can make writings such as Second Isaiah, the
Gettysburg Address, or Shakespeare’s sonnets, the definitive statements of
spirituality, jurisprudence, or personal love for a culture or an individual.
Related
to the above, it can be said in fact humans can think without using language,
but language skills facilitate learning and remembering, memecakan problems and
draw conclusions. Language allows individual codes for events and objects in
the form of words. With individuals capable of abstract language of his
experience and communicate it to others because language is a symbol of the
infinite system capable of expressing all the thinking.
Based
on the above ideas, we can say the relationship between language and thought is
a theme that is very challenging in the world of psychology studies. Therefore,
the authors attempt to uncover the relationship to include the views and
concepts from several experts associated with these disciplines.
CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION
Processing language
Language
processors activate these linguistic representations in speaking,
understanding, reading and writing, in a remarkably fast and accurate way. For
instance, when we speak, we select words in accordance with what we think our
listener will understand. We activate the sounds for each word. We construct a
syntactic structure to relate the words to each other, and an intonational
contour to convey the syntax.
All
this information is translated into movements of the mouth, jaw, tongue,
palate, larynx and other articulators that are regulated on a
millisecond-by-millisecond basis, so that we produce about three words per
second or one sound every tenth of a second on average. Yet we only make about
one sound error per million sounds and one word error per million words.
Watching the brain speak and listen
Scientists
have tried for over a century to understand how the brain learns, stores, and
processes language. The task is difficult because there are no animals who have
symbol systems as rich as language. Therefore, for a long time, information
about how the brain processed language could only come from the study of the
effects on language of neurological disease in humans. In the past decade,
exciting new techniques have allowed us to picture the normal brain at work
processing language. What used to take decades to learn, as scientists waited
for the opportunity to examine the brains of patients at post-mortem, can now
be approached in months using positron emission tomography, special analyses of
electroencephalograms, functional magnetic resonance imaging, magnetoencephalography,
and other tools.
Language and Brain
Of
course, language is a function of the peculiar structure of the human brain.
Several areas of the brain have been identified with linguistic skills, such as
producing and understanding speech. Furthermore, people with brain damage in
specific areas have difficulties with very specific aspects of language,
implying that it is a highly compartmentalized process. Furthermore, human
brains are functionally asymmetrical, concentrating many areas essential for
speech production in one hemisphere.
Bahasa tidak dapat
dipisahkan dengan otak, karena di otak terjadi pemrosesan bahasa sehingga dapat
diproduksi oleh manusia. Otak merupakan benda putih yang lunak yang terdapat di
dalam rongga tengkorak yang menjadi pusat saraf. Otak juga merupakan alat
berpikir.
Neurological Substratum of Language
Kompetensi dan performansi
berbahasa merupakan pekerjaan otak. Otak bekerja karena mekanisme saraf. Ilmu
tentang urat saraf (neuron) dan penyakit pada urat saraf (neurosis)
serta gangguan saraf (neurotik) disebut neurologi. Fritz &
Hitzig (1874) membagi otak manusia menjadi dua bagian, yakni hemisper kiri (left
hemisphere) dan hemisper kanan (right hemisphere). Kedua sisi otak
ini masing-masing memiliki fungsi khusus dan berbeda. Hemisper kanan digunakan
sebagai pusat untuk mengawasi kesadaran letak tubuh dan anggota badan lainnya
serta tugas-tugas mengenal ruang serta mengontrol anggota gerak sebelah kiri.
Selain itu, otak bagian ini juga bertugas mengawasi suara. Sedangkan hemisper
kiri digunakan sebagai pusat kemampuan berbicara dan pengontrol anggota gerak
sebelah kanan.
The
development of biolinguistics,especially in regard to its exclusive
preoccupation with the neurological structure of man as the only substratum of
language is an instance of this kind.Certainly, theoreticians have every
freedom to follow their own course of thinking and research; all the same,
their conclusions, should not as much as possible contradict the sound
convictions of the common man. Language, as we have been inquiries into;this
complexity has greatly contributed to divergence of conclusions reached in
regard to the nature of language.
The
brain and the nervous system are at best the biological substratum of man’s
language activity just as it is the biological substratum of all man’s
cognitive behaviour. It is true that all we know of the world around (our
cognitive experiences) and about our own body is the results of say the
decoding function of the brain of messages carried to it from what are called
receptors by sense impulses travelling through nerve fibres. Sensory stimuli
one the starting point i.e. the messages which the brain receives are initiated
by sensory stimuli such as light waves,vibration af air,mechanical pleasure of
varying tipe on the skin and other influances of the environment. The nerve
fibres convert the externally affected stimuli into the kind of energy which
can be borne to the brain centres. An impulse from a visual receptor is said
always to be conveyed to a particular point in the cerebral cortex which is the
enter surface of the cerebrum.
Human
activities are not limited to the activities of the sense of the man. The
senses, namely, man’s sense experiences are certainly the starting point of all
human knowlegde nothing enters into the
human man , which has not in same way passed through the sense. The sense are
our liaison agents with the rest of the world. the human being’s first contact
with the world outside we have explained in terms of the infant’s first
encounter with his mother perhaps,the first imagination is the mother said the
first concept on to the infan’s mind is related to man.
The structure of Brain
Otak adalah salah satu
komponen dalam system susunan saraf manusia. Komponen lainnya adalah sumsum
tulang belakang atau medula spinalis dan saraf tepi. Yang
pertama, otak, berada di dalam ruang tengkorak; medulla spinalis berada di
dalam ruang tulang belakang ; sedangkan saraf tepi ( saraf spinal dan saraf
otak ) sebagian berada di luar kedua ruang tadi ( Kusumoputro, 1981).
Otak seorang bayi ketika
baru dilahirkan beratnya hanya kira-kira 40 % dari berat otak orang dewasa ;
sedangkan mahluk primate lain, seperti kera dan simpanse adalah 70% dari otak
dewasanya (Menyuk, 1971: 31). Dari perbandingan tersebut tampak bahwa manusia
kiranya telah dikodratkan secara biologis untuk mengembangkan otak dan
kemampuannya secara cepat.
Rata-rata berat otak manusia
berkisar antara 1 hingga 1,5 kg atau 2,25 hingga 3,25 pon. Berat otak akan
meningkat seiring dengan pertambahan usia, terutama pada usia 1 hingga 2 tahun.
Ketika berusia 16 tahun, kapasitas otak telah mencapai 80% dari bobot total
100% otak manusia dewasa (Taylor dalam Fauziati, 2008). Antara hemisper kiri
dan kanan dihubungkan oleh serabut yang disebut Corpus callosum. Corpus
callosum ini berfungsi mengkomunikasikan antara hemisper kiri dan kanan.
Serabut ini juga berfungsi sebagai principle integrator dan koordinator
dalam proses mental yang terjadi pada dua belahan otak tersebut. Setiap belahan
otak ini dibagi kedalam 4 bagian atau lobus, dari bagian depan sampai belakang
terdapat lobus frontal, lobus temporal, lobus parietal, dan lobus oksipital.
Lobus frontal merupakan area
yang bertanggung jawab mengontrol gerakan, yang bernama primary motor-cortex,
pre-motor cortex, dan area yang berhubungan dengan produksi bahasa yang bernama
Broca’s area, umumnya area ini bertanggung jawab atas kesadaran. Kemudian ada
lobus parietal yang berisi primary somesthetic cortex yang bertanggung jawab
atas rasa tubuh. Pada area ini juga terdapat bagian yang bertanggung jawab atas
bahasa yang disebut angular gyrus, umumnya bertanggunggung jawab
sebagai perasa somesthetic (seperti rasa di lengan, kaki, wajah, dsb). Ketiga,
terdapat lobus temporal yang berisi primary auditory cortex yang bertanggung
jawab dalam proses mendengar dan juga dikenal dengan nama Wernicke’s area.
Keempat, yakni lobus oksipital yang berisi visual cortex yang memproses
informasi dalam proses melihat.
In
many animals that use sound for communication, the brain is lateralized,
placing the control of sound production in one hemisphere of the brain (usually
the left); this takes place quite strongly in songbirds and somewhat in
monkeys, dolphins, and mice. The phenomenon of lateralization is extremely strong
in humans, and in the vast majority language areas are concentrated in the left
hemisphere. The right hemisphere controls language in only about 3% of
right-handers and 19% of left-handers, and another 68% of left-handers have
language circuitry in both hemispheres.
There
are two major areas of the human brain that are responsible for language:
Broca’s area, which is though to be partially responsible for language
production (putting together sentences, using proper syntax, etc.) and
Wernicke’s area, which is thought to be partially responsible for language
processing (untangling others’ sentences and analyzing them for syntax,
inflection, etc.). Other areas involved in language are those surrounding the
Sylvian fissure, a cleavage line separating the portions of the brain that are
exclusively human from those we share with other animals. In general, the areas
that control language would be adjacent to one another if the human brain was
laid out as a flat sheet.
The
brain acts as a “command center” for language and communication, control of
both physical and mental components of speech. Step that triggers the speech:
Many areas of the brain work together to control the speech, as illustrated.
Specific areas used slightly different for reading aloud or engage in
conversation. Visual cortex (1A) to move when reading aloud while the auditory
cortex (1B) dominate during the conversation. Image Credit: Zina Deretsky, the
National Science Foundation
The
second half is expected to contribute to the processing and language
comprehension: the left brain processes the meaning of linguistic prosody (or,
rhythm, stress, and intonation of spoken connected), while the right hemisphere
processes the emotions conveyed by prosody. Studies of children have shown that
if a child has left brain damage, the child can develop language in the right
hemisphere instead. The younger the child, the better the recovery. So,
although “natural” is the tendency for language to develop on the left, the
human brain is able to adapt to difficult situations, if the damage occurs
early enough.
In
the speaker (right), the brain controls all mental and physical aspects of
speech. Sounds began as the breath expelled from the lungs. On his journey to
the mouth, trembling with forced air through the vocal cords. Mouth, nose and
tongue are modifying the air vibrate to form sound waves. Facial expressions
and gestures also play a role in communication. In the audience (left), sound
waves enter the ear and then analyzed with words by the brain. Image Credit:
Zina Deretsky, the National Science Foundation
Area’s
first language in the left hemisphere to be found is Broca’s area, named after
Paul Broca, who discovered the area while studying patients with aphasia,
language disorder. Broca’s area does not only deal out language in the sense of
the motor, though. It seems more commonly involved in the ability to process
its own grammar, at least the more complex aspects of grammar. For example,
handles distinguish a sentence in the passive form of the sentence
subject-verb-object is simple – the difference between “The boy hit the girl”
and “The girl hit the boy.”
Region
found a second language is called Wernicke’s area, after Carl Wernicke, a
German neurologist who discovered the area while studying patients who have
symptoms similar to patients with damage to Broca’s area but on different parts
of their brains. Wernicke’s aphasia is the term for disorders that occur in
patients with damage to Wernicke’s area.
Wernicke’s
aphasia affects not only the understanding of speech. People with Wernicke’s
aphasia also have trouble remembering names of objects, often respond with
words that sound similar, or a name related matters, because if they have
trouble remembering the association said.
Broca’s aphasia.
Broca dalam Fauziati (1861)
menyebutkan bahwa kemampuan berbicara berpusat pada otak sebelah kiri atau
hemisper kiri agak ke depan. Bagian ini terkenal dengan sebutan daerah Broca
(Broca’s area), yang berfungsi menguasai ujaran. Ada empat faktor dasar
ujaran, yakni: sebuah ide, hubungan konvensional antara ide dan kata, cara
penggandengan gerak artikulasi dengan kata, dan penggunaan alat-alat
artikulasi. Apabila bagian depan (anterior) dari hemisper kiri terluka atau
sakit, maka manusia akan mengalami gangguan artikulasi atau pengucapan,
misalnya, ucapan kurang jelas, lafal kurang baik, kalimat-kalimat menjadi tak
gramatikal, dan berbicara tidak lancar. Meskipun begitu, penderita penyakit ini
masih mampu mengungkapkan kalimat-kalimat bermakna sesuai dengan tujuan komunikasinya.
Penyakit seperti ini di kalangan neurologi disebut Broca’s aphasia
When
people experience damage to Broca’s area or its surroundings, their disorder is
called Broca’s aphasia. As predicted by the central role of Broca’s area in
language production, Broca’s aphasics produce slow, halting speech that is
rarely grammatical. Typical Broca’s aphasics eliminate inflections such as -ed
and words not central to the meaning of the sentence, such as the and and. They
generally retain their vocabularies and have no difficulty naming objects or
performing other meaning-related tasks. In general, they can deduce the
meanings of sentences from general knowledge, but cannot understand sentences
whose syntax is essential to their meaning. They are fully aware of their
difficulties and the rest of their faculties are unimpaired.
The
difficulties experienced by Broca’s aphasics reveal that Broca’s area is
central to correct processing and production of grammatical information.
However, some Broca’s aphasics retain certain grammatical abilities, including
the ability to process certain types of syntax. Moreover, the difficulty that
Broca’s aphasics experience in actual production of speech is also enigmatic; a
problem that affected exclusively grammar would not necessarily create
difficulty in speaking – only in speaking grammatically. As a result, Broca’s
area is clearly involved in grammar and language, but there may be other areas
in the brain with overlapping functions, and it may not be the seat of all grammatical
processing power.
.
Wernicke’s aphasia
When
people experience damage to Wernicke’s area, the result is a disorder called
Wernicke’s aphasia, which is in some ways the opposite of Broca’s aphasia.
Wernicke’s aphasics are able to produce generally grammatical sentences, but
they are often nonsensical and include invented words. Wernicke’s aphasics show
few signs of understanding others’ speech, and have difficulty naming objects;
they commonly produce the names of related objects or words that sound similar
to the object’s name.
The
symptoms experienced by Wernicke’s aphasics seem to support the idea that
Wernicke’s are is related to the correct processing of others’ communication.
It also implies that Wernicke’s area could be involved in the retrieval of
words from the mental dictionary.
Peningkatan Kemampuan Otak : Membaca
dengan Kedua Belah Otak
Teori lateralisasi dan lokalisasi
berpendapat bahwa wilayah-wilayah tertentu dalam otak memiliki fungsi-fungsi
tertentu, seperti ideasi bahasa berada pada hemisfer kiri dan kemampuan
berbicara ada pada daerah Broca sedangkan kemampuan memahami terdapat pada
daerah Wernicke. Kesimpulan yang diajukan telah dibuktikan berdasarkan
penelitian pasien-pasien yang mengalami kerusakan otak juga dari hasil
penelitian terhadap sejumlah orang yang tidak mengalami kerusakan otak.
Harian Media Indonesia 6 Januari
2000, menurunkan satu artikel berjudul " Membaca dengan Kedua Belah Otak
". dalam artikel itu dikatakan dalam era globalisasi dewasa ini agar tidak
ketinggalan informasi yang sudah mengglobal orang harus membaca. Namun,
pekerjaan membaca ini menjadi sukar bagi orang yang tidak bisa membaca ditempat
yang bising, atau bagi orang yang tidak punya banyak waktu karena kesibukannya
dengan pekerjaannya.
Orang dewasa rata-rata dapat membaca
250 kata per menit. Namun setelah 36 jam daya ingat yang tersisa dari yang
dibaca itu tinggal 10 %. Jadi, orang membaca selama satu jam hanya menguasai
bahan yang dibacanya selama enam menit. Kebanyakan orang hanya menggunakan
hemisfer kirinya. Wilayah hemisfer kiri biasanya membaca dengan pola analisis,
harfiah dan linear. Sedangkan hemisfer kanan mampu melakukan pemahaman secara
simbolik dan spasial, serta mudah menangkap makna intuitif dan metaphor.
Maka jika kedua hemisfer ini bisa difungsikan secara bersamaan, kiranya membaca
sekaligus memahami teks dapat dilakukan dengan kecepatan luar biasa.
Menurut Diane Alexander, lambannya
kecepatan membaca dan minimnya daya ingat terhadap yang dibacanya adalah karena
tidak terfokusnya mata pada apa yang dibacanya. Seringkali ketika menghadapi
sebuah halaman buku, mata lari kederetan kata diseluruh halaman dan bukan pada
satu deret kalimat yang dibaca. Oleh karena itu menurut Diane, langkah pertama
yang harus dilakukan untuk mengubah kebiasaan itu adalah membaca dengan runtut
dari samping kiri ke samping kanan halaman, dengan bantuan jari tangan yang
digunakan untuk mengikuti baris demi baris kalimat tersebut. Mata harus
dibiasakan untuk mengikuti rute ini secara tertib.
Berdasarkan penelitian yang
dikerjakan oleh Diane Alexander, Ken Shear, dan kawan-kawannya dapat ditarik
kesimpulan bahwa teori lokalisasi yang menyatakan tiap wilayah otak memiliki
fungsi-fungsi tetentu ternyata tidak seratus persen benar sebab ternyata
hemisfer kanan pun dapat dilatih untuk tugas-tugas kebahasaan.
Gangguan Berbahasa
Gangguan
berbahasa ini secara garis besar ini secara garis besar dapat di bagi menjadi
dua. Pertama, gangguan akibat factor medis yang disebabkan akibat kelainan
fungsi otak maupun kelainan alat-alat bicara, dan kedua gangguan akibat factor
lingkungan sosial yang disebabkan oleh faktor lingkungan. Yang dimaksud dengan
akibat factor lingkungan adalah terasingnya seorang anak manusia, yang aspek
biologis bahasanya normal dari lingkungan kehidupan manusia.
Keterasingannya bisa disebabkan karena diperlakukan dengan sengaja (sebagai
eksprimen) bisa juga karena hidup bukan dalam lingkungan manusia, melainkan
dipelihara oleh binatang misalnya serigala, seperti kasus Kamala dan Mougli
(Chachard, 1983: 68-69)
Seseorang yang mengalami gangguan berbicara seperti
gagap dapat diindikasikan mengalami gangguan atau kelainan pada salah satu
bagian otaknya. Untuk mampu berbahasa diperlukan kemampuan pemahaman (resepsi)
dan kemampuan produksi (ekspresi). Implikasinya ialah daerah Broca dan Wernicke
harus berfungsi secara penuh. Kerusakan pada salah satu atau kedua daerah
tersebut akan mengakibatkan gangguan berbahasa yang disebut aphasia.
Aphasia dapat dibedakan atas 2 jenis : aphasia motorik
(ekspresif) atau aphasia Broca dan aphasia sensorik (reseptif) atau aphasia
Wernicke.
Kerusakan otak yang dominan dapat mengakibatkan
aphasia motorik, kerusakan dapat terletak pada lapisan permnukaan (lesi
kortikal) daerah Broca, di lapisan di bawah permukaan (lesi subkortikal)
daerah Broca, atau antara daerah Broca dan daerah Wernicke (lesi
transkortikal). Aphasia motorik kortikal ialah hilangnya kemampuan untuk
mengutarakan isi pikiran dengan menggunakan perkataan. Ia mengerti bahasa lisan
dan tulis, tetapi tidak mampu berekspresi secara verbal, meskipun masih mampu
dengan menggunakan isyarat. Kemudian, Aphasia motorik subkortikal ialah
penderita tidak mampu mengutarakan isi pikirannya dengan menggunakan perkataan,
namun masih bisa dengan cara membeo. Pemaknaan ekspresi verbal dan visual tidak
terganggu, bahkan 80 % ekspresi visualnya normal. Sedangkan Aphasia motorik
transkortial (aphasia nominatif) ialah aphasia yang masih dapat mengutarakan
isi pikiran dengan menggunakan perkataan yang singkat dan tepat, namun masih
mungkin menggunakan perkataan penggantinya. Misalnya, tidak mampu menyebut nama
barang yang dipegangnya, tetapi tahu kegunaannya.
Aphasia sensorik terjadi akibat lesi kortial di daerah
Wernicke pada hemisper yang dominan. Daerah itu terletak di kawasan asosiatif
antara daerah visual, sensorik, motorik, dan pendengaran. Kerusakan pada daerah
Wernicke akan mengakibatkan kehilangan pengertian bahasa lisan dan tulis, namun
ia masih memiliki curah verbal, sekalipun tidak dipahami oleh dirinya maupun
orang lain. Curah verbal ini merupakan neologisme, yakni bahasa baru
yang tidak dimengerti oleh siapa pun, biasanya diucapkan dengan irama, nada,
dan melodi yang sesuai dengan bahasa asing yang ada. Ia bersikap biasa, tidak
tegang, ataupun depresif.
CHAPTER III
CONCLUSION
Otak adalah salah satu komponen
dalam sistem susunan saraf manusia perbedaan otak manusia dan makhluk lain
bukan hanya terletak pada beratnya saja, melainkan juga pada struktur dan
fungsinya.
Hemisfer kiri yang terutama mempunyai arti penting bagi bicara
bahasa, juga berperan untuk fungsi memori yang bersifat verbal. Sebaliknya,
hemisfer kanan penting untuk fungsi emosi, lagu, isyarat, baik yang emosional
maupun verbal.
Essentially in the
communication process occurs to produce and understand speech. It could be
argued that psycholinguistics is the study of mental mechanisms that occur in
people who use language, either during manufacture or understand speech. In
other words, the use of language is a process of changing the mind into the
code and change the code into the mind. Speech is a synthesis of the concept of
a code conversion process, while understanding the message of the code
analysis.
Language as an expression or
result of the process and as something that is processed either in the form of
spoken or written language, as proposed by Kempen (Marat, 1983: 5) that
Psycholinguistics is the study of human beings as language users, namely the
study of language systems that exist in people who can explain how humans can
catch the ideas of others and how he can express his own ideas through
language, either in writing or orally. When associated with language skills to
be mastered by anyone, it relates to language skills, namely listening,
speaking, reading and writing.
Humans as language users can
be considered as organisms move to reach the domains of psychology, whether
cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. The ability to use language, both
receptive (listening and reading) or productive (speaking and writing) involves
all three domains earlier.
The term cognitive cognition
that comes from knowing means knowing its equivalent. In a broad sense
cognition (cognition) is the acquisition, structuring, and use of knowledge ..
(Neisser in Shah, 2004:22). In a further development kognitiflah term which
became popular as one domain, domain / area / field of human psychology that
include human mental behavior associated with understanding, consideration,
problem solving, processing information, deliberate, and beliefs.
According to Chaplin (Shah,
2004:22) sphere is centered in the brain are also associated with konasi (the
will) and affective (feelings) related to the realm of taste.
Cognitive sphere centered in
the brain is the most important aspects of this aspect is the Sumner as well as
controlling other psychiatric domains, namely the realm of effective (sense)
and psychomotor domains (intention).
REFERENCES
Mukalel,Josep C.2003.Psychology of Language Learning.New
Delhi:Discovery Publishing House.
Tidak ada komentar:
Posting Komentar